Analytical Chemistry by Gary D. Christian

Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction 1

1 What is Analytical Science? 

1B The Analytical Perspective 5

1C Common Analytical Problems 8

1D Key Terms 9

1E Summary 9

1F Problems 9

1G Suggested Readings 10

1H References

Chapter 2

Basic Tools of Analytical Chemistry 11

2A Numbers in Analytical Chemistry 12

2A.1 Fundamental Units of Measure 12

2A.2 Significant Figures 13

2B Units for Expressing Concentration 15

2B.1 Molarity and Formality 15

2B.2 Normality 16

2B.3 Molality 18

2B.4 Weight, Volume, and Weight-to-Volume Ratios 18

2B.5 Converting Between Concentration Units 18

2B.6 p-Functions 19

2C Stoichiometric Calculations 20

2C.1 Conservation of Mass 22

2C.2 Conservation of Charge 22

2C.3 Conservation of Protons 22

2C.4 Conservation of Electron Pairs 23

2C.5 Conservation of Electrons 23

2C.6 Using Conservation Principles in Stoichiometry Problems 23

2D Basic Equipment and Instrumentation 25

2D.1 Instrumentation for Measuring Mass 25

2D.2 Equipment for Measuring Volume 26

2D.3 Equipment for Drying Samples 29

2E Preparing Solutions 30

2E.1 Preparing Stock Solutions 30

2E.2 Preparing Solutions by Dilution 31

2F The Laboratory Notebook 32

2G Key Terms 32

2H Summary 33

2I Problems 33

2J Suggested Readings 34

2K References 34

Chapter 3

The Language of Analytical Chemistry 35

3A Analysis, Determination, and Measurement 36

3B Techniques, Methods, Procedures, and

Protocols 36

3C Classifying Analytical Techniques 37

3D Selecting an Analytical Method 38

3D.1 Accuracy 38

3D.2 Precision 39

3D.3 Sensitivity 39

3D.4 Selectivity 40

3D.5 Robustness and Ruggedness 42

3D.6 Scale of Operation 42

3D.7 Equipment, Time, and Cost 44

3D.8 Making the Final Choice 44

3E Developing the Procedure 45

3E.1 Compensating for Interferences 45

3E.2 Calibration and Standardization 47

3E.3 Sampling 47

3E.4 Validation 47

3F Protocols 48

3G The Importance of Analytical Methodology 48

3H Key Terms 50

3I Summary 50

3J Problems 51

3K Suggested Readings 52

3L References 52

Chapter 4

Evaluating Analytical Data 53

4A Characterizing Measurements and Results 54

4A.1 Measures of Central Tendency 54

4A.2 Measures of Spread 55

4B Characterizing Experimental Errors 57

4B.1 Accuracy 57

4B.2 Precision 62

4B.3 Error and Uncertainty 64

4C Propagation of Uncertainty 64

4C.1 A Few Symbols 65

4C.2 Uncertainty When Adding or Subtracting 65

4C.3 Uncertainty When Multiplying or Dividing 66

4C.4 Uncertainty for Mixed Operations 66

4C.5 Uncertainty for Other Mathematical Functions 67

4C.6 Is Calculating Uncertainty Actually Useful? 68

4D The Distribution of Measurements and Results 70

4D.1 Populations and Samples 71

4D.2 Probability Distributions for Populations 71

4D.3 Confidence Intervals for Populations 75

4D.4 Probability Distributions for Samples 77

4D.5 Confidence Intervals for Samples 80

4D.6 A Cautionary Statement 81

4E Statistical Analysis of Data 82

4E.1 Significance Testing 82

4E.2 Constructing a Significance Test 83

4E.3 One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Significance Tests 84

4E.4 Errors in Significance Testing 84

4F Statistical Methods for Normal Distributions 85

4F.1 Comparing –X to μ 85

4F.2 Comparing s2 to σ2 87

4F.3 Comparing Two Sample Variances 88

4F.4 Comparing Two Sample Means 88

4F.5 Outliers 93

4G Detection Limits 95

4H Key Terms 96

4I Summary 96

4J Suggested Experiments 97

4K Problems 98

4L Suggested Readings 102

4M References 102

Chapter 5

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